The Monetization of Opinions: Consumer Responses to Covert Endorsement Practices on Instagram
James Harrison
Abstract
The rapid emergence of digital endorsers in recent years has generated a billion-dollar ‘influencer’ industry as brands race to exploit the growing pool of endorsers and reach consumers in a more authentic way, circumventing resistance to traditional advertising. Eager to monetize their channels and audiences, many of these ‘peer’ endorsers are saturating the platforms with brand-sponsored content which often attempts to conceal the commercial source. Although advertising authorities have introduced new disclosure regulations aimed at sponsored digital endorsements, many endorsers still fail to include full disclosure and regulators have issued a fresh call for academic research to address concerns of deception and manipulativeness. At the same time, digital endorsers are beginning to receive negative attention towards their behaviour and there is evidence that consumers are becoming sceptical of their ‘authentic’ lifestyles and ‘genuine’ recommendations. What originated as an authentic way for brands to reach consumers is now at risk of becoming just as staged as its marketing predecessor. While the effects of traditional celebrity endorsements have been extensively researched, there is a lack of academic research surrounding sponsored ‘peer’ endorsers on social networks, notably Instagram. Likewise, there is little research available which examines consumer responses to covert marketing via social media and the consequences of the practice for brands. This study employed a qualitative research approach, conducting eight in-depth interviews to reveal rich new insights on the perceptions and attitudes consumers hold towards sponsored endorsement activity on Instagram, specifically the covert nature of much of the practice. Findings indicate a rising level of consumer distrust and scepticism towards both Instagram endorsers and involved brands, as they see through the inauthenticity of the recommendations pushed at them. Furthermore, the study suggests current practices are manipulating and persuading consumers while unaware.ÂReferences
Agrawal, J. and Kamakura, W., 1995. The Economic Worth of Celebrity Endorsers: An Event Study Analysis. Journal of Marketing [online], 59 (3), 56.
AkdoÄŸan, M. and AltuntaÅŸ, B., 2015. Covert Marketing Strategy and
Techniques. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences [online], 207, 135-148.
Archer, C. and Harrigan, P., 2016. Show me the money: how bloggers as stakeholders are challenging theories of relationship building in public relations. Media International Australia [online], 160 (1), 67-77.
Arunesh, M., Arvind, N. and Marshini, C., 2018. An Empirical Study of Affiliate Marketing Disclosures on YouTube and Pinterest. Social and Information Networks.
Ashley, C. and Leonard, H., 2009. Betrayed by the Buzz? Covert Content and Consumer–Brand Relationships. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing [online], 28 (2), 212-220.
Atkin, C. and Block, M., 1983. Effectiveness of celebrity endorsers. Journal of Advertising Research, 23, 57-61.
Au Yeung, C. and Ballantine, P., 2015. The effects of review valence in organic versus sponsored blog sites on perceived credibility, brand attitude, and behavioural intentions. Marketing Intelligence & Planning [online], 33 (4), 508-521.
Baker, M., 2007. Marketing strategy and management. 4th ed. England: Palgrave Macmillian.
Bauer, M.W. and Gaskell, G., 2006. Qualitative researching with text, image and sound: a practical handbook. London: SAGE.
Bazeley, P. and Jackson, K., 2013. Qualitative Data Analysis with NVIVO. 2nd ed. London: Sage Publications.
Belk, R., 2016. Handbook of qualitative research methods in marketing. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
Bell, J. and Waters, S., 2014. Doing your research project: a guide for first-time researchers. 6th ed. Berkshire: Open University Press.
Birt, L., Scott, S., Cavers, D., Campbell, C. and Walter, F., 2016. Member Checking. Qualitative Health Research, 26 (13), 1802-1811.
Blaikie, N.W.H., 2000. Designing social research: the logic of anticipation. Cambridge, UK: Blackwell.
Blaxter, L., Hughes, C. and Tight, M., 2010. How to Research. 4th ed. New York: Open University Press.
Boerman, S., van Reijmersdal, E. and Neijens, P., 2012. Sponsorship Disclosure: Effects of Duration on Persuasion Knowledge and Brand Responses. Journal of Communication [online], 62 (6), 1047-1064.
Boerman, S., Willemsen, L. and Van Der Aa, E., 2017. “This Post Is Sponsoredâ€. Journal of Interactive Marketing [online], 38, 82-92.
Braun, V. and Clarke, V., 2013. Successful qualitative research: a practical guide for beginners. London: SAGE.
Brehm, J., 1980. A theory of psychological reactance. New York: Academic Press.
Bryman, A. and Bell, E., 2007. Business Research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bryman, A., 1988. Quantity and quality in social research. London, Boston: Unwin Hyman Publications.
Burkhalter, J., Wood, N. and Tryce, S., 2014. Clear, conspicuous, and concise: Disclosures and Twitter word-of-mouth. Business Horizons [online], 57 (3), 319-328.
Byrne, S., 2015. The Age of the Human Billboard: Endorsement Disclosures in New Millennia Media Marketing. Journal of Business & Technology Law [online], 10 (2), 393.
Cain, R., 2011. Embedded Advertising on Television: Disclosure, Deception, and Free Speech Rights. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 30 (2), 226-238.
Campbell, C. and Marks, L., 2015. Good native advertising isn’t a secret. Business Horizons [online], 58 (6), 599-606.
Campbell, M., Mohr, G. and Verlegh, P., 2013. Can disclosures lead consumers to resist covert persuasion? The important roles of disclosure timing and type of response. Journal of Consumer Psychology [online], 23 (4), 483-495.
Campbell, M., Mohr, G. and Verlegh, P., 2013. Can disclosures lead consumers to resist covert persuasion? The important roles of disclosure timing and type of response. Journal of Consumer Psychology [online], 23 (4), 483-495.
Carl, W., 2008. The role of disclosure in organized word-of-mouth marketing programs. Journal of Marketing Communications [online], 14 (3), 225-241.
Carr, C.T. and Hayes, R.A., 2014. The Effect of Disclosure of Third-Party Influence on an Opinion Leader's Credibility and Electronic Word of Mouth in Two-Step Flow. Journal of Interactive Advertising [online], 14 (1), 38-50.
Carson, D., Gilmore, A., Gronhaug, K. and Perry, C., 2001. Qualitative marketing research. London: SAGE.
Chahal, M., 2016. Four trends that will shape media in 2016 [online]. Marketing Week. Available from: http://www.marketingweek.com/2016/01/08/four-trendsthat-will-shape-media-in-2016 [Accessed 1 May 2018].
Chapple, C. and Cownie, F., 2017. An investigation into viewers’ trust in and response towards disclosed paid-for endorsements by YouTube lifestyle Vloggers. Journal of Promotional Communications [online], 5 (2).
Cheung, M.Y., Luo, C., Sia, C.L. and Chen, H., 2009. Credibility of electronic word-ofmouth: Informational and normative determinants of on-line consumer recommendations. International Journal of Electronic Commerce [online], 13 (4), 9-38.
Choi, S. and Rifon, N., 2012. It Is a Match: The Impact of Congruence between Celebrity Image and Consumer Ideal Self on Endorsement
Effectiveness. Psychology & Marketing [online], 29 (9), 639-650.
Chu, S. and Kamal, S., 2008. The Effect of Perceived Blogger Credibility and Argument Quality on Message Elaboration and Brand Attitudes. Journal of Interactive Advertising [online], 8 (2), 26-37.
Colliander, J. and Dahlén, M., 2011. Following the Fashionable Friend: The Power of Social Media. Journal of Advertising Research, 51 (1), 313-320.
Colliander, J. and Erlandsson, S., 2013. The blog and the bountiful: Exploring the effects of disguised product placement on blogs that are revealed by a third party. Journal of Marketing Communications, 21 (2), 110-124.
Collis, J. and Hussey, R., 2014. Business research. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
Corbin, J.M. and Strauss, A.L., 2008. Basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. 3rd ed. London: SAGE.
Creswell, J. W., 2003. Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
Crilly, N., Blackwell, A. and Clarkson, P., 2006. Graphic elicitation: using research diagrams as interview stimuli. Qualitative Research [online], 6 (3), 341-366.
Cronley, M., Kardes, F., Goddard, P. and Houghton, D., 1999. Endorsing Products For The Money: The Role of the Correspondence Bias in Celebrity Advertising. Advances in Consumer Research [online], 26 (1), 627-631.
Darke, P. and Ritchie, R., 2007. The Defensive Consumer: Advertising Deception, Defensive Processing, and Distrust. Journal of Marketing Research [online], 44 (1), 114-127.
Daymon, C. and Holloway, I., 2011. Qualitative Research Methods in Public Relations and Marketing Communications [online]. 2nd ed. London: Routledge.
Denscombe, M,. 2010. Ground rules for social research: guidelines for good practice. 2nd edition. Maidenhead: McGraw Hill Open University Press.
Denzin, N. K., 2009. The Research Act: A Theoretical Introduction to Sociological Methods. 4th ed. Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Djafarova, E. and Rushworth, C., 2017. Exploring the credibility of online celebrities' Instagram profiles in influencing the purchase decisions of young female users. Computers in Human Behavior [online], 68, 1-7.
Elberse, A. and Verleun, J., 2012. The Economic Value of Celebrity Endorsements. Journal of Advertising Research, 52 (2), 149-165.
Elliott, B., 2018. It’s not enough to just do it: Rise of the brand influencer [online]. The Media Online. Available from: http://themediaonline.co.za/2018/02/its-notenough-to-just-do-it-rise-of-the-brand-influencer/ [Accessed 11 May 2018].
Erdogan, B., 1999. Celebrity Endorsement: A Literature Review. Journal of Marketing Management [online], 15 (4), 291-314.
Erfgen, C., Zenker, S. and Sattler, H., 2015. The vampire effect: When do celebrity endorsers harm brand recall?. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32 (2), 155-163.
Evans, N., Phua, J., Lim, J. and Jun, H., 2017. Disclosing Instagram Influencer Advertising: The Effects of Disclosure Language on Advertising Recognition, Attitudes, and Behavioral Intent. Journal of Interactive Advertising [online], 17 (2), 138-149.
Fienman, L., 2011. Celebrity endorsements in non-traditional advertising: how the
FTC regulations fail to keep up with the Kardashians. Fordham University, School of Law, 2011 Autumn, (22), 97-143.
Finlay, M., 2018. Are brands the moral arbiter of influencer marketing? - Techround [online]. Techround. Available from: https://techround.co.uk/other/2018/12/01/influencers-are-brands-themoral-arbiter-in-the-digital-age/ [Accessed 12 May 2018].
Flick, U., 2014. An introduction to qualitative research. 5th ed. Los Angeles: SAGE.
Fransen, M., Smit, E. and Verlegh, P., 2015. Strategies and motives for resistance to persuasion: an integrative framework. Frontiers in Psychology [online], 6, 1201.
Freberg, K., Graham, K., McGaughey, K. and Freberg, L., 2011. Who are the social media influencers? A study of public perceptions of personality. Public Relations Review [online], 37 (1), 90-92.
Fung, A., Graham, M. and Weil, D., 2007. Full Disclosure: The Perils and Promise of Transparency [online]. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Gibson, W. and Brown, A., 2009. Working with Qualitative Data [online]. London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Gilbert, T. and Malone, S., 1995. The correspondence bias. Psychological Bulletin, 117 (1), 21-38.
Goldberg, J., 2018. Creators Are Often Influential But They Hate Being Called 'Influencers'[online]. Entrepreneur. Available from: https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/309711 [Accessed 1 May 2018].
Goldsmith, R., Lafferty, B. and Newell, S., 2000. The Impact of Corporate Credibility and Celebrity Credibility on Consumer Reaction to Advertisements and Brands. Journal of Advertising, 29 (3), 43-54.
Goodwin, T., 2018. If you're an 'influencer', you're probably not influential [online]. GQ. Available from: http://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/article/influencer-marketing [Accessed 8 May 2018].
Guest, G., Namey, E. and Mitchell, M., 2013. In-Depth Interviews. Collecting Qualitative Data: A Field Manual for Applied Research [online], 113-171.
Haigh, C., 2007. Getting Ethics Approal. In: Long, T. and Johnson, M. Research Ethics in the Real World. London: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Hennink, M. Hutter, I. and Bailey, A., 2011. Qualitative Research Methods. London: Sage Publication Limited.
Hogg, M. and Maclaran, P., 2008. Rhetorical issues in writing interpretivist consumer research. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal [online], 11 (2), 130-146.
Horton, D. and Richard Wohl, R., 1956. Mass Communication and Para-Social Interaction. Psychiatry, 19 (3), 215-229.
Hovland, C. and Weiss, W., 1951. The Influence of Source Credibility on
Communication Effectiveness. Public Opinion Quarterly [online], 15 (4), 635.
Hovland, C., Riley, M., Janis, I. and Kelley, H., 1954. Communication and Persuasion: Psychological Studies of Opinion Change. American Sociological Review [online], 19 (3), 355.
Hsu, C. and McDonald, D., 2002. An examination on multiple celebrity endorsers in advertising. Journal of Product & Brand Management [online], 11 (1), 19-29.
Hsu, C., Chuan-Chuan Lin, J. and Chiang, H., 2013. The effects of blogger recommendations on customers’ online shopping intentions. Internet Research [online], 23 (1), 69-88.
Hwang, Y. and Jeong, S., 2016. “This is a sponsored blog post, but all opinions are my ownâ€: The effects of sponsorship disclosure on responses to sponsored blog posts. Computers in Human Behavior [online], 62, 528-535.
Hyde, K.F., 2000. Recognising deductive processes in qualitative research. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal [online], 3 (2), 82-90.
Jin, S. and Phua, J., 2014. Following Celebrities’ Tweets About Brands: The Impact of Twitter-Based Electronic Word-of-Mouth on Consumers’ Source Credibility Perception, Buying Intention, and Social Identification with Celebrities. Journal of Advertising [online], 43 (2), 181-195.
Johnson, T. and Kaye, B., 2004. Wag the Blog: How Reliance on Traditional Media and the Internet Influence Credibility Perceptions of Weblogs Among Blog Users. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly [online], 81 (3), 622-642.
Jones, E., 1979. The rocky road from acts to dispositions. American Psychologist, 34
(2), 107-117.
Kaikati, A. and Kaikati, J., 2004. Stealth Marketing: How to Reach Consumers Surreptitiously. California Management Review, 46 (4), 6-22.
Kamins, M. and Gupta, K., 1994. Congruence between spokesperson and product type: A matchup hypothesis perspective. Psychology and Marketing [online], 11 (6), 569-586.
Kapitan, S. and Silvera, D., 2015. From digital media influencers to celebrity endorsers: attributions drive endorser effectiveness. Marketing Letters [online], 27 (3), 553-567.
Kassing, J. and Sanderson, J., 2009. “You're the Kind of Guy That We All Want for a
Drinking Buddyâ€: Expressions of Parasocial Interaction on
Floydlandis.com. Western Journal of Communication, 73 (2), 182-203.
King, R., Racherla, P. and Bush, V., 2014. What We Know and Don't Know About Online Word-of-Mouth: A Review and Synthesis of the Literature. Journal of Interactive Marketing [online], 28 (3), 167-183.
Knoblauch, H., 2018. Qualitative Methods at the Crossroads: Recent Developments in Interpretive Social Research [online]. Dx.doi.org. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.17169/fqs-14.3.2063 [Accessed 26 May 2018].
Kothari, C.R., 2004. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques [online]. 2nd ed. New Delhi, IND: New Age International.
Kozinets, R., de Valck, K., Wojnicki, A. and Wilner, S., 2010. Networked Narratives: Understanding Word-of-Mouth Marketing in Online Communities. Journal of Marketing, 74 (2), 71-89.
Kutthakaphan, R. and Chokesamritpol, W., 2018. The Use of Celebrity Endorsement with the Help of Electronic Communication Channel (Instagram). Master Thesis – International Marketing. Mälardalen University, School of Business, Society and Engineering.
Kuvita, T. and KarlÃÄek, M., 2014. The Risk of Vampire Effect in Advertisements Using Celebrity Endorsement. Central European Business Review [online], 3 (3), 1622.
Kvale, S., 2007. Doing Interviews [online]. London: Sage. 33-67.
Lafferty, B., Goldsmith, R. and Newell, S., 2002. The Dual Credibility Model: The Influence of Corporate and Endorser Credibility on Attitudes and Purchase Intentions. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice [online], 10 (3), 1-11.
Lee, J. and Watkins, B., 2016. YouTube vloggers' influence on consumer luxury brand perceptions and intentions. Journal of Business Research, 69 (12), 5753-5760.
Lee, J., Kim, S. and Ham, C., 2016. A Double-Edged Sword? Predicting Consumers’ Attitudes Toward and Sharing Intention of Native Advertising on Social Media. American Behavioral Scientist, 60 (12), 1425-1441.
Lee, K., 2018. The Road Ahead for Influencer Marketing: 2018 and Beyond [online]. Entrepreneur. Available from: https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/306688 [Accessed 29 May 2018].
Libarkin, J. and Kurdziel, J., 2002. Research methodologies in science education: The qualitative-quantitative debate. Journal of Geoscience Education, 50 (1), 78-86.
Liljander, V., Gummerus, J. and Söderlund, M., 2015. Young consumers’ responses to suspected covert and overt blog marketing. Internet Research, 25 (4), 610-632.
Lueck, J., 2012. Friend-zone with benefits: The parasocial advertising of Kim Kardashian. Journal of Marketing Communications, 21 (2), 91-109.
Lunardo, R. and Mbengue, A., 2013. When atmospherics lead to inferences of manipulative intent: Its effects on trust and attitude. Journal of Business Research, 66 (7), 823-830.
Magnini, V., Honeycutt, E. and Cross, A., 2008. Understanding the use of celebrity endorsers for hospitality firms. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 14 (1), 57-69.
Martin, K. and Smith, N., 2008. Commercializing Social Interaction: The Ethics of Stealth Marketing. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 27 (1), 45-56.
Mason, J., 2002. Qualitative researching. 2nd ed. London: SAGE.
Mathur, A., Narayanan, A. and Chetty, M., 2018. An Empirical Study of Affiliate Marketing Disclosures on YouTube and Pinterest. ArXiv [online]. Available from: https://www.arxiv-vanity.com/papers/1803.08488/ [Accessed 11 May 2018].
McCracken, G., 1989. Who is the celebrity endorser? Cultural foundations of the endorsement process. Journal of consumer research [online], 16, 310-321.
Meyer, S.B. and Lunnay, B., 2013. The application of abductive and retroductive inference for the design and analysis of theory-driven sociological research. Sociological research online [online], 18 (1), 12.
Miles, M. and Huberman, A., 2013. Qualitative data analysis. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Milne, G., Rohm, A. and Bahl, S., 2009. If It's Legal, Is It Acceptable? Journal of Advertising, 38 (4), 107-122.
Minton, E., Lee, C., Orth, U., Kim, C. and Kahle, L., 2012. Sustainable Marketing and Social Media. Journal of Advertising, 41 (4), 69-84.
Morales, A., 2005. Giving Firms an “E†for Effort: Consumer Responses to High-Effort Firms. Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (4), 806-812.
Morse, J.M., 1994. Designing Funded Qualitative Research in Denzin, N.K. and Lincoln, Y.S, Eds. Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 200-235.
Nekmat, E. and Gower, K.K., 2012. Effects of disclosure and message valence in online word-of-mouth (eWOM) communication: implications for integrated marketing communication. International Journal of Integrated Marketing Communications [online], 4 (1) 85-98.
Nicolau, J. and Santa-MarÃa, M., 2012. Celebrity endorsers' performance on the “ground†and on the “floorâ€. Marketing Letters, 24 (2), 143-149.
O'Boyle, E., Woo, S. and Spector, P., 2017. Best practices in developing, conducting, and evaluating inductive research. Human Resource Management Review, 27 (2), 255-264.
O'Donoghue, T., 2007. Planning your qualitative research project. London: Routledge.
Ohanian, R., 1990. Construction and validation of a scale to measure celebrity endorsers' perceived expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness. Journal of advertising [online], 19 (3), 39-52.
Petty, R. and Andrews, J., 2008. Covert Marketing Unmasked: A Legal and Regulatory Guide for Practices That Mask Marketing Messages. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 27 (1), 7-18.
Premeaux, S., 2005. The Attitudes of Middle Class Male and Female Consumers Regarding the Effectiveness of Celebrity Endorsers. Journal of Promotion Management, 11 (4), 33-48.
Punch, K., F., 2005. Introduction to Social Research: quantitative and qualitative approaches. 2nd ed. London: SAGE Publications.
Ritchie, J., Lewis, J., McNaughton Nicholls, C. and Ormston, R., 2003. Qualitative research practice. London: SAGE.
Ritchie, J., Lewis, J., Nicholls, C. M. and Ormston, R., 2013. Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers. London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Robinson, O., 2014. Sampling in Interview-Based Qualitative Research: A Theoretical and Practical Guide. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 11 (1), 25-41.
Roll, M., 2014. Building and Sustaining Strong Global Brands in Asia. 2nd ed. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Rosaen, S. and Dibble, J., 2008. Investigating the Relationships Among Child's Age, Parasocial Interactions, and the Social Realism of Favorite Television Characters. Communication Research Reports, 25 (2), 145-154.
Rotfeld, H., 2008. The Stealth Influence of Covert Marketing and Much Ado About What May Be Nothing. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 27 (1), 63-68.
Rozendaal, E., Lapierre, M., van Reijmersdal, E. and Buijzen, M., 2011. Reconsidering Advertising Literacy as a Defense Against Advertising Effects. Media Psychology, 14 (4), 333-354.
RUSSELL, C. and BELCH, M., 2005. A Managerial Investigation into the Product Placement Industry. Journal of Advertising Research, 45 (01), 73.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A., 2012. Research Methods for Business Students [online]. 6th ed. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
Scott, K., 2015. 'Instafamous' teen reveals social media's ugly tru
th [online]. ABC News. Available from: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-11-03/instagrampersonality-essena-o'neill-reveals-social-media-truth/6908270 [Accessed 1 May 2018].
Seno, D. and Lukas, B., 2007. The equity effect of product endorsement by celebrities. European Journal of Marketing, 41 (1/2), 121-134.
Silvera, D. and Austad, B., 2004. Factors predicting the effectiveness of celebrity endorsement advertisements. European Journal of Marketing, 38 (11/12), 1509-1526.
Silverman, D., 2013. Doing Qualitative Research. 4th ed. London: Sage.
Silverman, R. and Patterson, K., 2015. Qualitative research methods for community development. New York: Routledge.
Smith, A. and Anderson, M., 2018. Social Media Use in 2018 [online]. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. Available from:
http://www.pewinternet.org/2018/03/01/social-media-use-in-2018/ [Accessed 10 May 2018].
Sprott, D., 2008. The Policy, Consumer, and Ethical Dimensions of Covert Marketing: An Introduction to the Special Section. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 27 (1), 4-6.
Spry, A., Pappu, R. and Bettina Cornwell, T., 2011. Celebrity endorsement, brand credibility and brand equity. European Journal of Marketing, 45 (6), 882-909.
Stewart, R., 2018. UK shoppers say brands aren't transparent about influencer deals and rules need tightened [online]. The Drum. Available from:
http://www.thedrum.com/news/2018/02/12/uk-shoppers-say-brandsarent-transparent-about-influencer-deals-and-rules-need [Accessed 10 May 2018].
Swanepoel, C., Lye, A. and Rugimbana, R., 2009. Virally inspired: A review of the theory of viral stealth marketing. Australasian Marketing Journal (AMJ), 17 (1), 9-15.
Taylor, S., DeVault, M. and Bogdan, R., 2015. Introduction to qualitative research methods, 4th ed.. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley.
Tessitore, T. and Geuens, M., 2013. PP for ‘product placement’ or ‘puzzled public’?. International Journal of Advertising, 32 (3), 419-442.
Thomas, D., 2006. A General Inductive Approach for Analyzing Qualitative Evaluation Data. American Journal of Evaluation, 27 (2), 237-246.
TINA, 2016. Ad or Not? L'Oreal Influencer's Makeup Tutorial [online]. Truth In Advertising. Available from: https://www.truthinadvertising.org/ad-notloreal-influencers-makeup-tutorial/ [Accessed 3 May 2018].
TINA, 2017. Hairburst | Truth In Advertising [online]. Truth In Advertising. Available from: https://www.truthinadvertising.org/hairburst/ [Accessed 7 May 2018].
Törn, F., 2012. Revisiting the Match-Up Hypothesis: Effects of Brand-Incongruent Celebrity Endorsements. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 33 (1), 20-36.
Tutaj, K. and van Reijmersdal, E., 2012. Effects of online advertising format and persuasion knowledge on audience reactions. Journal of Marketing Communications, 18 (1), 5-18.
Um, N., 2016. Predictors of the effectiveness of celebrity endorsement on
Facebook. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal [online], 44 (11), 1839-1850.
van Reijmersdal, E., Fransen, M., van Noort, G., Opree, S., Vandeberg, L., Reusch, S., van Lieshout, F. and Boerman, S., 2016. Effects of Disclosing Sponsored Content in Blogs. American Behavioral Scientist [online], 60 (12), 1458-1474.
van Reijmersdal, E., Fransen, M., van Noort, G., Opree, S., Vandeberg, L., Reusch, S., van Lieshout, F. and Boerman, S., 2016. Effects of Disclosing Sponsored Content in Blogs. American Behavioral Scientist, 60 (12), 1458-1474.
Vega, T., 2013. Sponsors Now Pay for Online Articles, Not Just Ads [online]. New York Times. Available from:
https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/08/business/media/sponsors-now-payfor-online-articles-not-just-ads.html [Accessed 5 May 2018].
Walden, J., Bortree, D. and DiStaso, M., 2015. This blog brought to you by … exploring blogger perceptions of a product endorsement policy and reviews. Journal of Communication Management [online], 19 (3), 254-269.
Wei, M., Fischer, E. and Main, K., 2008. An Examination of the Effects of Activating Persuasion Knowledge on Consumer Response to Brands Engaging in Covert Marketing. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing [online], 27 (1), 34-44.
Willis, J., Jost, M. and Nilakanta, R., 2009. Foundations of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
Wojdynski, B. and Evans, N., 2016. Going Native: Effects of Disclosure Position and Language on the Recognition and Evaluation of Online Native Advertising. Journal of Advertising, 45 (2), 157-168.
Yang, W., 2017. Star power: the evolution of celebrity endorsement research. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management [online], 30 (1), 389-415.
